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The First Works of Art Ca 77000 Bce Were Used to

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Art produced in preliterate cultures

Not to exist confused with Paleoart.

In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures commencement somewhere in very late geological history, and generally continuing until that culture either develops writing or other methods of record-keeping, or makes significant contact with another culture that has, and that makes some tape of major historical events. At this point aboriginal art begins, for the older literate cultures. The terminate-appointment for what is covered past the term thus varies profoundly between different parts of the world.[1]

The earliest human artifacts showing bear witness of workmanship with an artistic purpose are the field of study of some contend. Information technology is articulate that such workmanship existed by 40,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic era, although it is quite possible that information technology began earlier. In September 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the earliest known cartoon by Man sapiens, which is estimated to be 73,000 years one-time, much before than the 43,000 years one-time artifacts understood to be the primeval known modern man drawings institute previously.[2]

Engraved shells created by Homo erectus dating as far dorsum as 500,000 years ago accept been found, although experts disagree on whether these engravings can exist properly classified as 'art'.[3] From the Upper Paleolithic through to the Mesolithic, cave paintings and portable art such as figurines and chaplet predominated, with decorative figured workings also seen on some utilitarian objects. In the Neolithic bear witness of early on pottery appeared, as did sculpture and the construction of megaliths. Early on rock fine art also first appeared during this period. The appearance of metalworking in the Statuary Age brought additional media available for use in making fine art, an increase in stylistic diversity, and the creation of objects that did not have whatever obvious function other than art. It also saw the development in some areas of artisans, a course of people specializing in the production of art, likewise as early writing systems. By the Atomic number 26 Age, civilizations with writing had arisen from Ancient Egypt to Ancient Red china.

Many indigenous peoples from around the world continued to produce creative works distinctive to their geographic area and culture, until exploration and commerce brought record-keeping methods to them. Some cultures, notably the Maya civilization, independently developed writing during the time they flourished, which was so later lost. These cultures may be classified as prehistoric, specially if their writing systems have not been deciphered.

Paleolithic era [edit]

Lower and Middle Paleolithic [edit]

The earliest undisputed art originated with the Homo sapiens Aurignacian archaeological civilization in the Upper Paleolithic. However, there is some testify that the preference for the aesthetic emerged in the Centre Paleolithic, from 100,000 to 50,000 years ago. Some archaeologists have interpreted certain Eye Paleolithic artifacts as early examples of artistic expression.[5] [6] The symmetry of artifacts, bear witness of attention to the particular of tool shape, has led some investigators to conceive of Acheulean mitt axes and especially laurel points as having been produced with a caste of artistic expression.

Claimed "Oldest known cartoon past human hands", discovered in Blombos Cavern in South Africa. Estimated to be 73,000 years old.[2]

Similarly, a zigzag engraving supposedly made with a shark tooth on a freshwater Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL around 500,000 years ago (i.e. well into the Lower Paleolithic), associated with Human erectus, could be the earliest testify of artistic activity, but the actual intent behind this geometric ornament is not known.[4]

There are other claims of Middle Paleolithic sculpture, dubbed the "Venus of Tan-Tan" (before 300 kya)[vii] and the "Venus of Berekhat Ram" (250 kya). In 2002 in Blombos cave, situated in South Africa, stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years agone. This suggested to some researchers that early Man sapiens were capable of abstraction and production of abstract art or symbolic art. Several archaeologists including Richard Klein are hesitant to accept the Blombos caves equally the first example of actual fine art.

In September 2018 the discovery in S Africa of the earliest known cartoon by Homo sapiens was announced, which is estimated to be 73,000 years old, much before than the 43,000 years old artifacts understood to be the primeval known mod man drawings found previously.[2] The drawing shows a crosshatched design made up of 9 fine lines. The sudden termination of all of the lines on the fragment edges indicate that the pattern originally extended over a larger surface.[8] Information technology is also estimated that the pattern was most likely more complex and structured in its entirety than shown on the discovered expanse. Initially, when this cartoon was found, there was much debate. To prove that this drawing was created by Man Sapiens, French team members who specialized in chemic analysis of pigments, reproduced the same lines using a diverseness of techniques.[9] They concluded that the lines making up the drawing were intentional and were well-nigh likely made with ocher. This discovery adds further dimensions to understanding the behavior and cognition of early homo sapiens.

Neanderthals may accept made art. Painted designs in the caves of La Pasiega (Cantabria), a manus stencil in Maltravieso (Extremadura), and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalusia) are dated to 64,800 years ago, predating by at least xx,000 years the inflow of modern humans in Europe.[10] [11] In July 2021, scientists reported the discovery of a bone etching, one of the earth'southward oldest works of art, made by Neanderthals nearly 51,000 years ago.[12] [xiii]

Upper Paleolithic [edit]

In Nov 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as quondam as 52,000) years erstwhile, of an unknown animate being, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian isle of Borneo.[14] [xv]

Some of the oldest undisputed works of figurative art were found in the Schwäbische Alb, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The earliest of these, the Venus figurine known equally the Venus of Hohle Fels and the Lion-human being figurine, date to some 40,000 years ago.

Further depictional art from the Upper Palaeolithic menstruum (broadly 40,000 to 10,000 years ago) includes cave painting (e.thou., those at Chauvet, Altamira, Pech Merle, Arcy-sur-Cure and Lascaux) and portable art: Venus figurines like the Venus of Willendorf, likewise as animal carvings like the Swimming Reindeer, Wolverine pendant of Les Eyzies, and several of the objects known every bit bâtons de commandement.

Paintings in Pettakere cave on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi are up to twoscore,000 years old, a like appointment to the oldest European cave fine art, which may propose an older mutual origin for this type of art, perhaps in Africa.[xvi]

Monumental open up-air art in Europe from this menstruation includes the rock-art at Côa Valley and Mazouco in Portugal, Domingo García and Siega Verde in Kingdom of spain, and Rocher gravé de Fornols [fr] in France.

A cavern at Turobong in S Korea containing human remains has been constitute to contain carved deer bones and depictions of deer that may be as much equally 40,000 years quondam.[17] Petroglyphs of deer or reindeer constitute at Sokchang-ri may also appointment to the Upper Paleolithic. Potsherds in a style reminiscent of early Japanese piece of work have been found at Kosan-ri on Jeju island, which, due to lower ocean levels at the time, would have been accessible from Nihon.[eighteen]

The oldest petroglyphs are dated to approximately the Mesolithic and late Upper Paleolithic purlieus, well-nigh x,000 to 12,000 years ago. The earliest undisputed African rock fine art dates back near 10,000 years. The first naturalistic paintings of humans institute in Africa engagement back about 8,000 years evidently originating in the Nile River valley, spread as far west as Mali about 10,000 years ago. Noted sites containing early on fine art include Tassili n'Ajjer in southern Algeria, Tadrart Acacus in Libya (A Unesco World Heritage site), and the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad.[xix] Rock carvings at the Wonderwerk Cave in Southward Africa take been dated to this historic period.[20] Contentious dates as far back equally 29,000 years have been obtained at a site in Tanzania. A site at the Apollo 11 Cavern complex in Namibia has been dated to 27,000 years.

Göbekli Tepe in Turkey has circles of massive T-shaped rock pillars dating dorsum to the 10th–8th millennium BCE; the globe's oldest known megaliths. Many of the pillars are busy with abstruse, enigmatic pictograms and carved animal reliefs.

Asia [edit]

Asia was the cradle for several meaning civilizations, virtually notably those of Communist china and South asia. The prehistory of eastern Asia is especially interesting, as the relatively early introduction of writing and historical record-keeping in Red china has a notable touch on on the immediately surrounding cultures and geographic areas. Picayune of the very rich traditions of the art of Mesopotamia counts as prehistoric, as writing was introduced and so early in that location, just neighbouring cultures such as Urartu, Luristan and Persia had meaning and circuitous creative traditions.

A possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva", 2600–1900 BCE

Republic of azerbaijan [edit]

The Gobustan National Park reserve located at the due south-east of the Greater Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, 60 km away from Baku appointment back more than 12 thousand years ago. The reserve has more than 6,000 rock carvings depicting more often than not hunting scenes, human and brute figures. There are as well longship illustrations like to Viking ships. Gobustan is also characterized by its natural musical stone chosen Gavaldash (tambourine rock).[21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [ self-published source? ]

Indian sub-continent [edit]

The primeval Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs every bit found in places like the Stone Shelters of Bhimbetka, and some of them are dated to circa viii,000 BC.[26] [27] [28] [29] [xxx] The Indus Valley civilisation produced fine minor stamp seals and sculptures, and may accept been literate, but later on its collapse at that place are relatively few artistic remains until the literate menses, probably as perishable materials were used.

Red china [edit]

Prehistoric artwork such as painted pottery in Neolithic Red china can be traced back to the Yangshao civilisation and Longshan culture of the Yellow River valley. During Red china'southward Bronze Historic period, Chinese of the ancient Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty produced multitudes of Chinese ritual bronzes, which are elaborate versions of ordinary vessels and other objects used in rituals of ancestor veneration, decorated with taotie motifs and by the late Shang Chinese statuary inscriptions. Discoveries in 1987 in Sanxingdui in fundamental China revealed a previously unknown pre-literate Statuary Age culture whose artefacts included spectacular very big bronze figures (case left), and which appeared culturally very dissimilar from the contemporary late Shang, which has always formed part of the business relationship of the continuous tradition of Chinese culture.

Japan [edit]

According to archeological testify, the Jōmon people in ancient Japan were among the showtime to develop pottery, dated from the 11th millennium BCE. With growing sophistication, the Jōmon created patterns by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks.

Korea [edit]

A Korean Neolithic pot found in Busan, 3500 BCE

The earliest examples of Korean art consist of Stone Age works dating from 3000 BCE. These mainly consist of votive sculptures, although petroglyphs have also been recently rediscovered. Rock arts, elaborate stone tools, and potteries were as well prevalent.

This early period was followed by the art styles of various Korean kingdoms and dynasties. In these periods, artists oft adopted Chinese style in their artworks. However, Koreans not only adopted but also modified Chinese culture with a native preference for simple elegance, purity of nature and spontaneity. This filtering of Chinese styles later influenced Japanese creative traditions, due to cultural and geographical circumstances.

The prehistory of Korean ends with the founding of the Iii Kingdoms of Korea, which are documented in the Samguk Sagi, a 12th-century CE text written in Classical Chinese (the written language of the literati in traditional Korea), as outset in the 1st century BCE; some mention of before history is as well made in Chinese texts, similar the tertiary-century CE Sanguo Zhi.

Jeulmun menses [edit]

Clearer evidence of culture emerges in the late Neolithic, known in Korea as the Jeulmun pottery catamenia, with pottery similar to that found in the next regions of China, decorated with Z-shaped patterns. The primeval Neolithic sites with pottery remains, for example Osan-ri, appointment to 6000–4500 BCE.[xviii] This pottery is characterized by comb patterning, with the pot oftentimes having a pointed base of operations. Ornaments from this time include masks fabricated of crush, with notable finds at Tongsam-dong, Osan-ri, and Sinam-ri. Hand-shaped dirt figurines have been plant at Nongpo-dong.[31]

Mumun period [edit]

Large Middle Mumun (c. 800 BCE) storage vessel unearthed from a pit-house in or nearly Daepyeong

During the Mumun pottery menses, roughly between 1500 BCE and 300 BCE, agronomics expanded, and evidence of larger-scale political structures became apparent, as villages grew and some burials became more than elaborate. Megalithic tombs and dolmens throughout Korea date to this time. The pottery of the time is in a distinctive undecorated mode. Many of these changes in style may have occurred due to immigration of new peoples from the north, although this is a subject of debate.[32] At a number of sites in southern Korea there are rock art panels that are thought to date from this period, mainly for stylistic reasons.[33]

While the verbal date of the introduction of bronzework into Korea is as well a thing of fence, information technology is clear that bronze was being worked by about 700 BCE. Finds include stylistically distinctive daggers, mirrors, and belt buckles, with evidence by the 1st century BCE of a widespread, locally distinctive, bronzeworking civilization.[34]

Protohistoric Korea [edit]

The time between 300 BCE and the founding and stabilization of the Iii Kingdoms around 300 CE is characterized artistically and archaeologically by increasing merchandise with China and Nihon, something that Chinese histories of the time corroborate. The expansionist Chinese invaded and established commanderies in northern Korea as early on every bit the 1st century BCE; they were driven out by the fourth century CE.[35] The remains of some of these, especially that of Lelang, virtually modern Pyongyang, take yielded many artifacts in a typical Han style.[36]

Chinese histories besides record the beginnings of fe works in Korea in the 1st century BCE. Stoneware and kiln-fired pottery as well appears to engagement from this fourth dimension, although there is controversy over the dates.[37] Pottery of distinctly Japanese origin is institute in Korea, and metalwork of Korean origin is found in northeastern China.[38]

Steppes Fine art [edit]

Late seventh-century Scythian plaque of a leopard

Superb samples of Steppes art - generally golden jewellery and trappings for horse - are plant over a vast expanses of land stretching from Republic of hungary to Mongolia. Dating from the catamenia between the seventh and third centuries BCE, the objects are usually diminutive, equally may be expected from nomadic people always on the move. Fine art of the steppes is primarily an animal art, i.e., gainsay scenes involving several animals (real or imaginary) or single animal figures (such as aureate stags) predominate. The best known of the various peoples involved are the Scythians, at the European end of the steppe, who were peculiarly likely to bury gold items.

Among the most famous finds was made in 1947, when the Soviet archaeologist Sergei Rudenko discovered a regal burying at Pazyryk, Altay Mountains, which featured - among many other of import objects - the nearly aboriginal extant pile carpet, probably made in Persia. Unusually for prehistoric burials, those in the northern parts of the expanse may preserve organic materials such as woods and textiles that unremarkably would decay. Steppes people both gave and took influences from neighbouring cultures from Europe to People's republic of china, and later on Scythian pieces are heavily influenced by ancient Greek style, and probably oft made by Greeks in Scythia.

Well-nigh East [edit]

The Ain Sakhri Lovers from modern Israel, is a small-scale Natufian etching in calcite, from about nine,000 BCE. Around the same time, the extraordinary site of Göbekli Tepe in eastern Turkey was begun. During the outset phase, belonging to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), circles of massive simply neatly shaped T-shaped stone pillars were erected – the world's oldest known megaliths.[39] More than 200 pillars in about 20 circles are currently known through geophysical surveys. Each pillar has a elevation of up to 6 k (20 ft) and weighs upwards to 10 tons. They are fitted into sockets that were hewn out of the bedrock.[40] In the 2d stage, belonging to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), the erected pillars are smaller and stood in rectangular rooms with floors of polished lime. On the smoothed surfaces of the pillars in that location are reliefs of animals, abstract patterns, and some human figures.

By convention, prehistory in the Nigh Due east is taken to go along until the rise of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE, although writing existed in the region from nearly two,000 years earlier. On that ground the very rich and long tradition of the art of Mesopotamia, too every bit Assyrian sculpture, Hittite art and many other traditions such as the Luristan bronzes all autumn nether prehistoric art, even if covered with texts extolling the ruler, as many Assyrian palace reliefs are.

Europe [edit]

Stone Age [edit]

The Art of the Upper Paleolithic includes carvings on antler and bone, especially of animals, equally well equally the so-called Venus figurines and cave paintings, discussed higher up. Despite a warmer climate, the Mesolithic menstruation undoubtedly shows a falling-off from the heights of the preceding period. Stone art is found in Scandinavia and northern Russia, and around the Mediterranean in eastern Spain and the earliest of the Rock Drawings in Valcamonica in northern Italy, simply not in betwixt these areas.[41] [42] Examples of portable fine art include painted pebbles from the Azilian culture which succeeded the Magdalenian, and patterns on utilitarian objects, like the paddles from Tybrind Vig, Denmark. The Mesolithic statues of Lepenski Vir at the Iron Gate, Serbia date to the 7th millennium BCE and represent either humans or mixtures of humans and fish. Uncomplicated pottery began to develop in various places, even in the absenteeism of farming.

Mesolithic [edit]

Compared to the preceding Upper Paleolithic and the post-obit Neolithic, there is rather less surviving art from the Mesolithic. The Rock fine art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, which probably spreads across from the Upper Paleolithic, is a widespread phenomenon, much less well known than the cave-paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, with which information technology makes an interesting dissimilarity. The sites are at present mostly cliff faces in the open air, and the subjects are at present more often than not human rather than beast, with large groups of small figures; there are 45 figures at Roca dels Moros. Wear is shown, and scenes of dancing, fighting, hunting and nutrient-gathering. The figures are much smaller than the animals of Paleolithic art, and depicted much more schematically, though frequently in energetic poses.[43] A few pocket-sized engraved pendants with suspension holes and simple engraved designs are known, some from northern Europe in bister, and i from Starr Carr in Britain in shale.[44]

The rock fine art in the Urals appears to prove similar changes after the Paleolithic, and the wooden Shigir Idol is a rare survival of what may well have been a very common material for sculpture. It is a plank of larch carved with geometric motifs, but topped with a homo head. At present in fragments, it would obviously take been over five metres tall when made.[45]

Neolithic [edit]

Map with distribution of statue-menhir in Europe.[1] Photos and pictures: 1y iv.-Bueno et al. 2005; 2.-Santonja y Santonja 1978; 3.-Jorge 1999; five.-Portela y Jiménez 1996; six.-Romero 1981; 7.-Helgouach 1997; 8.- Tarrete 1997; nine, ten, 13, 14, 29, 30, 31, 32.-Philippon 2002; 11.-Corboud y Curdy 2009; 12.-Muller 1997; 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 Arnal 1976; 24 y 25.- Augusto 1972; 26 y 27.- Grosjean 1966; 34.- López et al. 2009.

In Key Europe, many Neolithic cultures, similar Linearbandkeramic, Lengyel and Vinča,[46] produced female (rarely male) and animal statues that can be called fine art, and elaborate pottery decoration in, for instance, the Želiesovce and painted Lengyel style.

Megalithic (i.e., large stone) monuments are found in the Neolithic Era from Malta to Portugal, through France, and beyond southern England to most of Wales and Republic of ireland. They are also found in northern Germany and Poland, as well every bit in Egypt in the Sahara desert (at Nabta Playa and other sites). The best preserved of all temples and the oldest free standing structures are the Megalithic Temples of Malta. They start in the 5th millennium BC, though some authors speculate on Mesolithic roots. 1 of the best-known prehistoric sites is Stonehenge, function of the Stonehenge World Heritage Site which contains hundreds of monuments and archaeological sites. Monuments have been found throughout most of Western and Northern Europe, notably at Carnac, France.

Entrance stone with megalithic fine art at Newgrange

The large mound tomb at Newgrange, Ireland, dating to around 3200 BC, has its entrance marked with a massive stone carved with a complex blueprint of spirals. The mound at nearby Knowth has large flat rocks with stone engravings on their vertical faces all around its circumference, for which various meanings take been suggested, including depictions of the local valley, and the oldest known image of the Moon. Many of these monuments were megalithic tombs, and archaeologists speculate that most have religious significance. Knowth is reputed to have approximately i third of all megalithic fine art in Western Europe.

In the central Alps, the Camunni made some 350,000 petroglyphs: see Rock Drawings in Valcamonica.

Bronze Age [edit]

During the 3rd millennium BCE, the Bronze Age began in Europe, bringing with it a new medium for art. The increased efficiency of bronze tools also meant an increase in productivity, which led to a surplus — the start pace in the cosmos of a form of artisans. Because of the increased wealth of lodge, luxury appurtenances began to be created, especially busy weapons.

Examples include ceremonial bronze helmets, ornamental ax-heads and swords, elaborate instruments such as lurer, and other ceremonial objects without a practical purpose, such equally the oversize Oxborough Dirk. Special objects were fabricated in gold; many more gilt objects have survived from Western and Central Europe than from the Iron Age, many mysterious and foreign objects ranging from lunulas, manifestly an Irish gaelic speciality, the Mold Cape and Golden hats. Pottery from Key Europe can be elaborately shaped and decorated. Rock fine art, showing scenes from the religious rituals take been found in many areas, for example in Bohuslän, Sweden and the Val Camonica in northern Italian republic.

In the Mediterranean, the Minoan civilization was highly developed, with palace complexes from which sections of frescos have been excavated. Contemporary Ancient Egyptian art and that of other avant-garde Virtually Eastern cultures can no longer exist treated every bit "prehistoric".

Iron Age [edit]

The Iron Age saw the development of anthropomorphic sculptures, such every bit the warrior of Hirschlanden, and the statue from the Glauberg, Germany. Hallstatt artists in the early Fe Age favored geometric, abstruse designs perhaps influenced by merchandise links with the Classical globe.

The more than elaborate and curvilinear La Tène fashion adult in Europe in the later Fe Age from a centre in the Rhine valley only it soon spread beyond the continent. The rich chieftain classes appear to have encouraged ostentation and Classical influences such as bronze drinking vessels attest to a new fashion for wine drinking. Communal eating and drinking were an important part of Celtic society and culture and much of their art was often expressed through plates, knives, cauldrons and cups. Equus caballus tack and weaponry were as well busy. Mythical animals were a common motif along with religious and natural subjects and their depiction is a mix between the naturalistic and the stylized. Megalithic fine art was withal sometimes skilful, examples include the carved limestone pillars of the sanctuary at Entremont in modern-solar day France. Personal beautification included torc necklaces whilst the introduction of coinage provided a further opportunity for artistic expression. The coins of this catamenia are derivatives of Greek and Roman types, but showing the more exuberant Celtic creative style.

A 1st century BCE mirror establish in Desborough, England, showing the spiral and trumpet motif

The famous late 4th century BCE Waldalgesheim chariot burial in the Rhineland produced many fine examples of La Tène art including a statuary flagon and bronze plaques with repoussé man figures. Many pieces had curvy, organic styles though to be derived from Classical tendril patterns.

In much of western Europe elements of this artistic style can be discerned surviving in the art and architecture of the Roman colonies. In particular in Uk and Ireland there is a tenuous continuity through the Roman period, enabling Celtic motifs to resurface with new vigour in the Christian Insular fine art from the 6th century onwards.

The sophisticated Etruscan civilization developed from the 9th to 2nd centuries, with considerable influence from the Greeks, earlier finally beingness absorbed by the Romans. By the end of the period they had developed writing, only early Etruscan art tin be called prehistoric.

Africa [edit]

Ancient Egypt falls outside the scope of this article; it had a shut relationship with the Sudan in particular, known in this period as Nubia, where there were advanced cultures from the 4th millennium BCE, such as the "A-Group", "C-Group", and the Kingdom of Kush.

Southern Africa [edit]

In September 2018, scientists from the University of Bergen, the University of Bordeaux and the University of the Witwatersrand together reported the discovery of the primeval known cartoon by Human being sapiens at Blombos Cave, South Africa which is estimated to be 73,000 years old, much earlier than the 43,000 years old artifacts understood to be the primeval known modernistic human being drawings found previously.[2]

There is a significant body of rock painting in the region around Matobo National Park of Zimbabwe dating from as early as 6000 BCE to 500 CE.[47]

Significant San rock paintings be in the Waterberg area to a higher place the Palala River and around Drakensberg in Due south Africa, some of which are considered to derive from the period 8000 BCE. These images are very clear and depict a variety of human being and wildlife motifs, peculiarly antelope. There appears to exist a fairly continuous history of stone painting in this area; some of the fine art clearly dates into the 19th century. They include depictions of horses with riders, which were not introduced to the area until the 1820s.[48]

Namibia, in add-on to the Apollo 11 Cavern complex, has a significant assortment of San rock art near Twyfelfontein. This work is several thousand years erstwhile, and appears to end with the arrival of pastoral tribes in the area.[49]

Horn of Africa [edit]

Laas Geel is a complex of caves and rock shelters in northwestern Somalia. Famous for their rock fine art, the caves are located in a rural area on the outskirts of Hargeisa. They comprise some of the earliest known cave paintings in the Horn of Africa, many of which depict pastoral scenes. Laas Geel's stone art is estimated to date back to somewhere between 9,000–8,000 and 3,000 BCE.

In 2008, archaeologists also announced the discovery of cave paintings in Somalia's northern Dhambalin region, which the researchers suggest includes one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the Ethiopian-Arabian way, dated to thou to 3000 BCE.[50] [51]

Other prehistoric art in the Horn region include stone megaliths and engravings, some of which are 3,500 years old. The town of Dillo in Ethiopia has a hilltop covered with stone stelae. It is i of several such sites in southern Federal democratic republic of ethiopia dating from celebrated menstruum[ clarification needed ] (tenth-14th centuries).[52]

Saharan Africa [edit]

The early art of this region has been divided into five periods:

  • Bubalus Catamenia, roughly 12-8 kya
  • Round Head Period, roughly 10-8 kya
  • Pastoral Period, roughly seven.v-4 kya
  • Horse Period, roughly three-2 kya
  • Camel Menstruum, ii,000 years ago to the present

Works of the Bubalus period bridge the Sahara, with the finest work, carvings of naturalistically depicted megafauna, concentrated in the primal highlands. The Round Head Menses is dominated by paintings of strangely shaped human forms, and few animals, suggesting the artists were foragers. These works are largely limited to Tassili n'Ajjer and the Tadrart Acacus. Toward the cease of the period, images of domesticated animals, equally well as decorative article of clothing and headdresses announced. Pastoral Period art was more focused on domestic scenes, including herding and dancing. The quality of artwork declined, as figures became more than simplified.[53]

The Horse Period began in the eastern Sahara and spread westward. Depictions from this menstruation include carvings and paintings of horses, chariots, and warriors with metallic weapons, although there are also frequent depictions of wild animals such as giraffes. Humans are mostly depicted in a stylized way. Some of the chariot art bears resemblance to temple carvings from aboriginal Egypt. Occasionally, fine art panels are accompanied past Tifinagh script, yet in use by the Berber people and the Tuareg today; however, modern Tuareg are generally unable to read these inscriptions. The final Camel period features carvings and paintings in which camels predominate, but likewise include humans with swords, and later, guns; the art of this fourth dimension is relatively rough.[54]

North Africa [edit]

The Americas [edit]

North America [edit]

Belonging in the Lithic stage, the oldest known fine art in the Americas is the Vero Beach bone, possibly a mammoth bone, etched with a profile of walking mammoth that dates back to 11,000 BCE.[55] The oldest known painted object in the Americas is the Cooper Bison Skull from ten,900 to 10,200 BCE.[56]

Mesoamerica [edit]

The aboriginal Olmec "Bird Vessel" and bowl, both ceramic and dating to circa yard BC as well equally other ceramics were produced in kilns capable of exceeding approximately 900 °C. The just other prehistoric culture known to take accomplished such high temperatures is that of Ancient Egypt.[57]

Much Olmec art is highly stylized and uses an iconography reflective of the religious significant of the artworks. Some Olmec art, however, is surprisingly naturalistic, displaying an accuracy of depiction of human beefcake possibly equaled in the pre-Columbian New World simply by the best Maya Classic-era art. Olmec art-forms emphasize monumental statuary and small-scale jade carvings. A mutual theme is to be found in representations of a divine jaguar. Olmec figurines were also found abundantly through their period.

South America [edit]

Lithic age art in S America includes Monte Alegre culture rock paintings created at Caverna da Pedra Pintada dating back to 9250–8550 BCE.[58] [59] Guitarrero Cave in Republic of peru has the earliest known textiles in Southward America, dating to 8000 BCE.[sixty]

Peru and the central Andes [edit]

Lithic and preceramic periods [edit]

Peru, including an surface area of the central Andes stretching from the northern part of the country to northern Chile, has a rich cultural history, with evidence of human being habitation dating to roughly x,000 BCE.[61] Prior to the emergence of ceramics in this region around 1850 BCE, cave paintings and chaplet have been institute. These finds include rock paintings that controversially appointment as far back as 9500 BCE in the Toquepala Caves.[62] Burying sites in Peru like one at Telarmachay equally former as 8600-7200 BCE contained evidence of ritual burial, with red ocher and dewdrop necklaces.[63]

The earliest ceramics that appear in Peru may have been imported from the Validivia region; ethnic pottery product almost certainly arrived in the highlands around 1800 BCE at Kotosh, and on the declension at La Florida c. 1700 BCE. Older calabash gourd vessels with human faces burned into them were found at Huaca Prieta, a site dating to 2500-2000 BCE[64] Huaca Prieta also contained some early patterned and dyed textiles fabricated from twisted found fibers.[65]

Initial Catamenia and First Horizon [edit]

The Initial Period in Central Andean cultures lasted roughly from 1800 BCE to 900 BCE. Textiles from this fourth dimension found at Huaca Prieta are of astonishing complication, including images such every bit crabs whose claws transform into snakes, and double-headed birds. Many of these images are like to optical illusions, where which image dominates depends in part on which the viewer chooses to see. Other portable artwork from this time includes decorated mirrors, bone and shell jewelry, and unfired dirt female effigies.[66] Public compages, including works estimated to require the movement of more than 100,000 tons of rock, are to be found at sites similar Kotosh, El Paraíso, Peru, and La Galgada (archaeological site). Kotosh, a site in the Andean highlands, is particularly noted as the site of the Temple of the Crossed Hands, in which there are two reliefs of crossed forearms, one pair male, one pair female.[67] Also of note is one of South America'due south largest formalism sites, Sechín Alto. This site'south crowning work is a twelve-story platform, with stones incised with military themes.[68] The architecture and art of the highlands, in particular, laid downward the groundwork for the ascent of the Chavín civilisation.[69]

The Chavín culture dominated the central Andes during the Starting time Horizon, beginning around 900 BCE, and is generally divided into two stages. The first, running until most 500 BCE, represented a significant cultural unification of the highland and coastal cultures of the fourth dimension. Imagery in all manner of fine art (textiles, ceramics, jewelry, and architectural) included sometimes fantastic imagery such every bit jaguars, snakes, and man–animal composites, much of it seemingly inspired by the jungles to the eastward.[70]

The subsequently stage of the Chavín civilization is primarily represented by a pregnant architectural expansion of the Chavín de Huantar site effectually 500 BCE, accompanied past a set of stylistic changes. This expansion included, amid other changes, over forty large rock heads, whose reconstructed positions represent a transformation from human to supernatural animal visages. Much of the other art at the complex from this fourth dimension contains such supernatural imagery.[71] The portable fine art associated with this time included sophisticated metalworking, including alloying of metals and soldering.[72] Textiles found at sites like Karwa clearly describe Chavín cultural influences,[73] and the Cupisnique style of pottery disseminated past the Chavín would set standards all across the region for afterward cultures.[74] (The vessel pictured at the top of this article, while from the afterwards Moche culture, is representative of the stirrup-spouted vessels of the Chavín.)

Early Intermediate Period [edit]

A Paracas Mantle dating from 200 CE

The Early on Intermediate Period lasted from almost 200 BCE to 600 CE. Late in the Start Horizon, the Chavín culture began to decline, and other cultures, predominantly in the littoral areas, began to develop. The earliest of these was the Paracas culture, centered on the Paracas Peninsula of primal Peru. Active from 600 BCE to 175 BCE, their early on piece of work conspicuously shows Chavín influence, simply a locally distinctive style and technique developed. It was characterized past technical and fourth dimension-consuming item work, visually colorful, and a profusion visual elements. Distinctive technical differences include painting on clay afterwards firing, and embroidery on textiles.[75] One notable find is a curtain that was clearly used for preparation purposes; it shows obvious indications of experts doing some of the weaving, interspersed with less technically proficient trainee piece of work.[76]

The Nazca culture of southern Peru, which is widely known for the enormous figures traced on the ground by the Nazca lines in southern Peru, shared some similarities with the Paracas culture, but techniques (and scale) differed. The Nazca painted their ceramics with skid, and likewise painted their textiles.[77] Nazca ceramics featured a wide diversity of subjects, from the mundane to the fantastic, including utilitarian vessels and effigy figures. The Nazca also excelled at goldsmithing, and fabricated pan pipes from clay in a style not unlike the pipes heard in music of the Andes today.[78]

The famous Nazca lines are accompanied past temple-like constructions (showing no sign of permanent dwelling house) and open plazas that presumably had ritual purposes related to the lines. The lines themselves are laid out on a sort of natural blackboard, where a thin layer of dark rock covers lighter stone; the lines were thus created by simply removing the acme layer where desired, after using surveying techniques to lay out the design.[79]

In the northward of Peru, the Moche culture dominated during this time. Also known as Mochica or Early Chimú, this warlike culture dominated the expanse until about 500 CE, patently using conquest to proceeds access to disquisitional resource along the desert coast: arable country and h2o. Moche art is again notably distinctive, expressive and dynamic in a way that many other Andean cultures were not. Knowledge of the period has been notably expanded by finds similar the pristine purple tombs at Sipán.[80]

The Moche very obviously absorbed some elements of the Chavín civilisation, but also captivated ideas from smaller nearby cultures that they assimilated, such equally the Recuay culture and the Vicús.[81] They made fully sculpted ceramic animal figures, worked aureate, and wove textiles. The art often featured everyday images, but seemingly always with a ritual intent.[82]

In its later years, the Moche came nether the influence of the expanding Huari empire. The Cerro Blanco site of Huaca del Sol appears to have been the Moche capital. Largely destroyed by natural events around 600 CE, information technology was further damaged by Spanish conquistadors searching for gold, and continues with mod looters.[83]

Eye Horizon [edit]

Ponce monolith in the sunken courtyard of the Tiwanaku's Kalasasaya temple

The Middle Horizon lasted from 600 CE to 1000 CE, and was dominated past 2 cultures: the Huari and the Tiwanaku. The Tiwanaku (also spelled Tiahuanaco) culture arose nigh Lake Titicaca (on the mod edge between Republic of peru and Bolivia), while the Wari civilization arose in the southern highlands of Republic of peru. Both cultures appear to take been influenced by the Pukara civilisation, which was active during the Early Intermediate in betwixt the primary centers of the Wari and Tiwanaku.[84] These cultures both had wide-ranging influence, and shared some common features in their portable art, but their monumental arts were somewhat distinctive.[85]

The monumental fine art of the Tiwanaku demonstrated technical prowess in stonework, including fine detailed reliefs, and monoliths such as the Ponce monolith (photograph to the left), and the Lord's day Gate, both in the main Tiwanaku site. The portable art featured "portrait vessels", with figured heads on ceramic vessels, besides as natural imagery like jaguars and raptors.[86] A total range of materials, from ceramics to textiles to wood, os, and shell, were used in creative endeavours. Textiles with a weave of 300 threads per inch (80 threads per cm) accept been establish at Tiwanaku sites.[87]

The Wari dominated an area from northern to central Peru, with their master center about Ayacucho. Their fine art is distinguished from the Tiwanaku style past the use of bolder colors and patterns.[88] Notable amongst Wari finds are tapestry garments, presumed to be made for priests or rulers to wear, oftentimes begetting abstract geometric designs of significant complication, simply as well bearing images of animals and figures.[89] Wari ceramics, too of loftier technical quality, are similar in many ways to those of the preceding cultures, where local influences from fallen cultures, similar the Moche, are withal somewhat axiomatic. Metalwork, while rarely found due to its desirability by looters, shows elegant simplicity and, once more, a loftier level of workmanship.[ninety]

Tardily Intermediate Flow [edit]

Following the decline of the Wari and Tiwanaku, the northern and central littoral areas were somewhat dominated past the Chimú culture, which included notable subcultures like the Lambayeque (or Sicán) and Chancay cultures. To the south, coastal cultures dominated in the Ica region, and there was a significant cultural crossroads at Pachacamac, near Lima.[91] These cultures would dominate from virtually one thousand CE until the 1460s and 1470s, equally the Inca Empire began to take shape and somewhen absorbed the geographically smaller nearby cultures.

Chimú and Sicán Cultures

The Chimú culture in particular was responsible for an extremely large number of artworks. Its uppercase city, Chan Chan, appears to take independent building that appeared to part equally museums—they seem to have been used for displaying and preserving artwork. Much of the artwork from Chan Chan in particular has been looted, some by the Spanish subsequently the Spanish conquest.[91] The art from this time at times displays astonishing complexity, with "multimedia" works that require artists working together in a variety of media, including materials believed to take come from as far away every bit Central America. Items of increasing splendor or value were produced, patently as the order became increasing stratified.[92] At the same, the quality of some of the work declined, as need for pieces pushed production rates upwardly and values downward.[93]

The Sicán culture flourished from 700 CE to about 1400 CE, although it came nether political domination of the Chimú around 1100 CE, at which time many of its artists may accept moved to Chan Chan. In that location was meaning copperworking by the Sicán, including what seems to exist a sort of currency based on copper objects that expect like axes.[94] Artwork includes burial masks, beakers and metal vessels that previous cultures traditionally made of clay. The metalwork of the Sicán was particularly sophisticated, with innovations including repoussé and vanquish inlay. Sheet metal was as well often used to embrace other works.[95]

Prominent in Sicán iconography is the Sicán deity, which appears on all manner of work, from the portable to the monumental. Other imagery includes geometric and wave patterns, as well as scenes of angling and shell diving.[96]

Chancay culture Chancay civilization, before information technology was subsumed past the Chimú, did not feature notable monumental fine art. Ceramics and textiles were made, just the quality and skill level was uneven. Ceramics are generally black on white, and often endure from flaws like poor firing, and drips of the skid used for colour; nevertheless, fine examples exist. Textiles are overall of a college quality, including the apply of painted weaves and tapestry techniques, and were produced in large quantities.[97] The colour palette of the Chancay was not overly bold: golds, browns, white, and cherry-red predominate.[98]

Pachacamac Pachacamac is a temple site south of Lima, Peru that was an important pilgrimage middle into Castilian colonial times. The site boasts temple constructions from several periods, culminating in Inca constructions that are still in relatively adept condition. The temples were painted with murals depicting plants and animals. The chief temple independent a carved wooden sculpture akin to a totem pole.[98]

Ica culture The Ica region, which had been dominated by the Nazca, was fragmented into several smaller political and culture groups. The pottery produced in this region was of the highest quality at the time, and its aesthetics would be adopted past the Inca when they conquered the area.[99]

Late Horizon and Inca culture [edit]

An 1860 map of Cusco. The puma shape is discernible, with the head at the upper left and the tail at the lower right.

The twelve angle stone, in the Hatum Rumiyoc street of Cusco, is an example of Inca masonry.

This time period represents the era in which the civilization of the central Andes is about completely dominated by the Inca Empire, which began its expansion in 1438. It lasted until the Spanish conquest in 1533. The Inca captivated much technical skill from the cultures they conquered, and disseminated it, along with standard shapes and patterns, throughout their area of influence, which extended from Quito, Ecuador to Santiago, Chile. Inca stonework is notably skilful; giant stones are set up then tightly without mortar that a knife bract will non fit in the gap.[100] Many of the Inca's monumental structures deliberately echoed the natural environment around them; this is especially evident in some of the structures at Machu Picchu.[101] The Inca laid the city of Cusco in the shape of a puma, with the caput of the puma at Sacsayhuaman,[102] a shape that is still discernible in aerial photographs of the city today.

The iconography of Inca fine art, while conspicuously drawing from its many predecessors, is nevertheless recognizably Inca. Bronzework owes a clear debt to the Chimú, as practise a number of cultural traditions: the finest goods were reserved to the rulers, who wore the finest textiles, and ate and drank from gilt and silver vessels.[103] Equally a result, Inca metalwork was relatively rare, and an obvious source of plunder for the conquering Castilian.

Textiles were widely prized inside the empire, in office as they were somewhat more portable in the far-flung empire.[104]

Ceramics were made in large quantities, and, as with other media, in standardized shapes and patterns. One mutual shape is the urpu, a distinctive urn shape that came in a broad variety of standard capacities, much as modernistic storage containers do.[105] In spite of this standardization, many local areas retained some distinctive aspects of their civilization in the works they produced; ceramics produced in areas under significant Chimú control prior to the Inca rule still retain characteristics indicative of that mode.[106]

Following the Spanish conquest, the art of the fundamental Andes was significantly affected by the disharmonize and diseases brought by the Spanish. Early colonial period art, began to show influences of both Christianity and Inca religious and artistic ideas, and eventually also began to encompass new techniques brought by the conquerors, including oil painting on canvas.[107]

Early ceramics in northern Southward America [edit]

The earliest prove of decorated pottery in South America is to be found in ii places. A diverseness of sites in the Santarém region of Brazil incorporate ceramic sherds dating to a menses betwixt 5000 and 3000 BCE.[108] Sites in Colombia, at Monsú and San Jacinto contained pottery finds in different styles, and appointment as far back as 3500 BCE.[109] This is an expanse of active research and subject to alter.[110] The ceramics were decorated with curvilinear incisions. Another ancient site at Puerto Hormiga in the Bolívar Section of Colombia dating to 3100 BCE independent pottery fragments that included figured animals in a style related to after Barrancoid cultural finds in Colombia and Venezuela.[109] Valdivia, Republic of ecuador also has a site dated to roughly 3100 BCE containing decorated fragments, as well equally figurines, many correspond nude females. The Valdivian fashion stretched every bit far due south as northern Peru,[111] and may, according to Lavallée, however yield older artifacts.[108]

By 2000 BCE, pottery was evident in eastern Venezuela. The La Gruta mode, often painted in red or white, included incised fauna figures in the ceramic, also as ceramic vessels shaped every bit fauna effigies. The Rancho Peludo style of western Venezuela featured relatively elementary material-type decorations and incisions.[111] Finds in the central Andes dating to 1800 BCE and after appear to be derived from the Valdivian tradition of Ecuador.[112]

Early on art in eastern South America [edit]

Relatively little is known about the early settlement of much of South America east of the Andes. This is due to the lack of stone (generally required for leaving durable artifacts), and a jungle environment that quickly recycles organic materials. Beyond the Andean regions, where the inhabitants were more clearly related to the early cultures of Peru, early finds are mostly express to coastal areas and those areas where there are stone outcrops. While in that location is testify of homo habitation in northern Brazil as early as 8000 BCE,[113] and rock art of unknown (or at all-time uncertain) age, ceramics announced to be the earliest artistic artifacts. The Mina civilization of Brazil (3000–1600 BCE) had simple round vessels with a cerise launder, that were stylistic predecessors to subsequently Bahia and Guyanese cultures.[111]

Southern Southward America [edit]

The southern reaches of S America show evidence of human habitation as far back as 10,000 BCE. A site at Arroio do Fosseis on the pampa in southern Brazil has shown reliable evidence to that time,[114] and the Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of the continent has been occupied since 7000 BCE.[115] Creative finds are scarce; in some parts of Patagonia ceramics were never fabricated, simply being introduced by contact with Europeans.[116]

Oceania [edit]

Commonwealth of australia [edit]

From earliest times Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders have been creating distinctive patterns of art. Much of the fine art is transitory, drawn in sand or on the human being torso to illustrate a identify, a totem, or a cultural story. Early on surviving artworks are mostly rock paintings. Some are called Ten-ray paintings because they show the bones and organs of the animals they draw. Some Aboriginal art appears as abstract to modern viewers; Aboriginal fine art employs geometrical figures, dots and lines to nowadays the story being told.

The Gwion Gwion rock fine art are ane of many styles of rock fine art found in Western Australia. They are predominantly human figures drawn in fine detail with authentic anatomical proportioning. They are usually dated to be at least 17,000 years old, and in that location have been suggestions they are as much as 70,000 years old.[117] The Sydney rock engravings are also a prominent stone art site in the state.[118]

Polynesia [edit]

The natives of Polynesia have a distinct artistic heritage. While many of their artifacts were made with organic materials and thus lost to history, some of their most striking achievements survive in dirt and stone. Amongst these are numerous pottery fragments from western Oceania, from the late 2nd millennium BCE. Also, the natives of Polynesia left scattered around their islands Petroglyphs, stone platforms or Marae, and sculptures of ancestor figures, the nearly famous of which are the Moai of Easter Isle.

Run across as well [edit]

  • Çatalhüyük
  • List of Stone Historic period art
  • Nevalı Çori
  • Prehistoric music
  • Prehistoric faith

Notes [edit]

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  5. ^ New York Times
  6. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of New York Urban center Introduction to Prehistoric Art Retrieved 2012-5-12
  7. ^ Chase, pp. 145-146
  8. ^ Henshilwood, Christopher; Niekerk, Karen Loise van. "South Africa'south Blombos cave is home to the earliest cartoon by a man". The Conversation . Retrieved 2020-02-17 .
  9. ^ "Discovery of the primeval drawing". ScienceDaily . Retrieved 2020-02-17 .
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  11. ^ Marris, Emma (22 February 2018). "Neanderthal artists fabricated oldest-known cavern paintings". Nature. doi:x.1038/d41586-018-02357-eight.
  12. ^ Feehly, Conor (6 July 2021). "Beautiful Bone Carving From 51,000 Years Ago Is Changing Our View of Neanderthals". ScienceAlert . Retrieved 6 July 2021.
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  16. ^ "Indonesian Cavern Paintings As Erstwhile As Europe'south Aboriginal Art". NPR.org. 8 October 2014.
  17. ^ Portal, p. 25
  18. ^ a b Portal, p. 26
  19. ^ Coulson, pp. 150–155
  20. ^ Thackeray.
  21. ^ Republic of azerbaijan, Republic of azerbaijan (2005). Azerbaijan. Cavendish Square Publishing. pp. 18. ISBN9780761420118.
  22. ^ Republic of azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces, Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces (1979). Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces. Corvina Kiadó. p. 8. ISBN9789631303216. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  27. ^ Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2000). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. p. 189. ISBN9788176250863.
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  31. ^ Portal, p. 27
  32. ^ Portal, p. 29
  33. ^ Portal, p. 33
  34. ^ Portal, pp. 34–35
  35. ^ Portal, p. 38
  36. ^ Portal, p. 39
  37. ^ Portal, p. 40
  38. ^ Portal, p. 41
  39. ^ Sagona, Claudia (2015-08-25). The Archaeology of Malta. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN9781107006690 . Retrieved 25 November 2016.
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  41. ^ Sandars, 75-98
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  45. ^ Geggel, Laura (April 25, 2018). "This Eerie, Human-Like Figure Is Twice As Onetime Equally Egypt'due south Pyramids". Alive Science . Retrieved April 28, 2018.
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  48. ^ Coulson, pp. 80–82
  49. ^ Unesco World Heritage designation.
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  54. ^ Coulson, pp. 160–162,205
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  58. ^ Wilford, John Noble. Scientist at Piece of work: Anna C. Roosevelt; Sharp and To the Indicate In Amazonia. New York Times. 23 April 1996
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  60. ^ Stone-Miller, 17
  61. ^ Lavallée, p. 88
  62. ^ Lavallée, p. 94
  63. ^ Lavallée, p. 115
  64. ^ Lavallée, p. 186
  65. ^ Bruhns, p. 80
  66. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 19–20
  67. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 21
  68. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 27
  69. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 22
  70. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 28–29
  71. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 40
  72. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 44
  73. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 46
  74. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 49
  75. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 50
  76. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 58
  77. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 67
  78. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 74–75
  79. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 78–82
  80. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 83
  81. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 88
  82. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 86
  83. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 92
  84. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 121–123
  85. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 119
  86. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 131–134
  87. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 136
  88. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 138–139
  89. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 146–148
  90. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 149–150
  91. ^ a b Stone-Miller, p. 151
  92. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 153
  93. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 154
  94. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 156
  95. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 156–158
  96. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 160
  97. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 175–177
  98. ^ a b Stone-Miller, p. 179
  99. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 180
  100. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 181
  101. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 190
  102. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 194
  103. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 186
  104. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 209
  105. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 215
  106. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 216
  107. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 217
  108. ^ a b Lavallée, p. 182
  109. ^ a b Bruhns, pp. 116–117
  110. ^ Lavallée, pp. 176–182
  111. ^ a b c Bruhns, pp. 117–118
  112. ^ Bruhns, p. 119
  113. ^ Lavallée, p. 113
  114. ^ Lavallée, p. 108
  115. ^ Lavallée, p. 112
  116. ^ Lavallée, p. 187
  117. ^ Bradshaw Foundation. "The Bradshaw Paintings - Australian Stone Art Archive". Bradshaw Foundation.
  118. ^ Bowdler, Sandra. "Assurance Head: the digging of a Port Jackson stone shelter. Records of the Australian Museum 28(7): 117–128, plates 17–21. [iv October 1971]" (PDF). AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS. Australian Museum. Retrieved April 28, 2012.

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  • Sandars, Nancy Thousand., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
  • Stone-Miller, Rebecca (1995). Fine art of the Andes . Thames and Hudson. ISBN978-0-500-20286-nine.
  • Thackeray, Anne I.; Thackeray, JF; Beaumont, Lead; Vogel, JC; et al. (1981-10-02). "Dated Rock Engravings from Wonderwerk Cave, Due south Africa". Science. 214 (4516): 64–67. Bibcode:1981Sci...214...64T. doi:10.1126/science.214.4516.64. PMID 17802575. S2CID 29714094.
  • "Unesco World Heritage announcement on Twyfelfontein". Retrieved 2008-11-13 .

External links [edit]

  • RockArtScandinavia Tanums Hällristningsmuseum Underslös. Stone fine art research centre.
  • EuroPreArt database of European Prehistoric Fine art
  • Lepenski Vir
  • Göbekli Tepe, in German
  • Nevali Cori
  • Prehistoric Art Expressions from India
  • http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHprehistoric.html#general
  • http://donsmaps.com/combarelles.html
  • Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (Baronial 2016).

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_art

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